All terms of social science. Basic social science terms
Dictionary of Social Studies from A to Z.
Absolute truth - this is a complete correspondence of the form of the psyche (for example, judgment, image, etc.) and the object of knowledge.
Absolute misconception - this is a complete discrepancy between the form of the psyche and the object of knowledge.
Agency service - This is a type of contract, under the terms of which the agent, for a fee, is obliged to perform on behalf of the other party (principal) legal and other actions on its own behalf, but at the expense of the principal.
Socialization agents - these are individuals, groups or organizations that conduct training and help a person to master roles, such as family, school, media, a group of teenagers.
Propaganda period - the period during which election campaigning is allowed.
Agnosticism - this is a theory about the fundamental impossibility of knowing the world around us, since the world around does not exist, and only our consciousness and our sensations exist.
Additive behavior- this is the behavior that consists in escaping from reality by taking various psychotropic drugs - alcohol, drugs, toxins, smoking tobacco.
Administrative offense (offense) - this is an action or inaction that encroaches on public order, the rights and freedoms of citizens.
Axiology - this is the science of values. A stock is a security sold to an investor for money that goes into the development of a company and gives him the rights to co-own the property of a company and to receive future profits of the company (dividends).
Ordinary stock - this is such an action, which gives the right to participate in the management of the enterprise and receive part of the net profit.
Privileged Share - this is a share that gives the right to receive dividends of a fixed value regardless of the amount of profit, but does not give the right to participate in the management of the company.
Altruism - this is the willingness to sacrifice for the sake of other people.
Amnesty- this is an exemption from further serving the sentence of certain categories of persons (but not personally), which is announced by the State Duma in connection with a significant date or event.
Profile - This is a duplicate document containing several dozen questions. Anomie - a state of lawlessness, lack of rule, which exists in modern large cities, occurs in the country during the period of revolution or rebellion.
Antisocial behavior - This is such a behavior, which is the commission of actions contrary to ethics and morality.
Philosophical anthropology - this is the doctrine of man.
Apartheid - It is a system of separation of white and "color" in South Africa in the recent past.
Apeiron (according to the theory of Anaximander) is infinitely divisible.
Aporia (translated from Greek) is a hopeless situation, a logical contradiction or a puzzle.
Apostles - These are the disciples of Jesus Christ. Rent is a type of contract under which the landlord undertakes to provide the tenant with property for a fee for temporary possession and use.
Aristocracy - it is a form of government in which there is the power of a good minority of citizens.
Artifacts - this is the creation of human hands. Asceticism (from Greek “I exercise”) is the ultimate limitation of my needs.
Atheist- This is a man who does not believe in the existence of God, this is an atheist. Atman (in Buddhism) is emptiness, God.
Bank - It is a financial intermediary for accepting deposits, providing loans, arranging settlements, buying and selling securities.
Bankruptcy (failure) of an enterprise is the inability to repay debts to creditors.
Barter- it is a direct natural exchange of one commodity for another commodity.
Cashless funds - These are the amounts on the accounts of citizens and organizations in the bank, while the calculations are carried out by changing the records on the accounts.
Unemployed - These are people who are willing and able, but do not have the opportunity to work due to the fact that they cannot find work.
Biosphere - this is the shell of the Earth, it is an open system created by living organisms. Behaviorism (from English behavior - behavior) - is the science of behavior.
Economic benefits - it is a means to meet the human needs of Boheme - it is a culture of artists and artists.
Marriage - It is a voluntary union between a man and a woman for the purpose of creating a family.
Bourgeoisie - This is a class of entrepreneurs. The state budget is an estimate of government revenues and expenditures.
Budgetary (fiscal) policy (from the Roman "fiscus" - "cash basket") - use of the state budget (and it consists of taxes and expenses) to regulate business activity, stimulate economic growth, overcome a recession, combat inflation, and the like.
Budget deficit - this is the excess of state expenditures over revenues, covered either by loans or by issue of money. The bureaucracy is a hierarchical organization built on administrative control and a backstage fight for power clicks.
Gross National Product (GNP) - this is the aggregate market value of all goods and services produced in the country during the year
Bill of exchange - It is the obligation of one person to another to pay a fixed amount of money at a certain point in time.
The value of the sentence - is the volume of a certain type of goods in the physical dimension, which sellers are willing and able to offer during a certain period of time at a certain level of market price.
Verification procedure - This is a test of philosophical concepts for scientific, for compliance with the facts.
Veto - it is the right of one authority to adopt or reject proposed regulations, decrees or laws passed by another authority.
Wines - This is a negative judgment about yourself.
Political power - is the ability to exercise social control over the activities of people in the political sphere.
Perception - This is an image consisting of several sensations.
Elections- this is a democratic procedure, with the help of which the executors for the posts of president, deputy or governor are defined. Higher or exploitative (in Marxist terminology) class is a group of people who are controllers in society.
Heliocentric theory - This is a theory about the rotation of the Earth and the planets of the solar system around the sun.
Geographical direction in sociology - this is a theory whose representatives believed that geographical factors affect society.
Geopolitics(from the Greek land + state affairs) is a social science of space control.
Geocentric theory - this is a false theory about the rotation of the sun, planets and stars around the earth.
Geoeconomics - this is the world economy.
Gerontocracy- this is the board of old men.
Gerousia- This is the council of elders (in Greek - geronts).
Hypnosis- this is the suggestion of norms of behavior through the immersion of a person in a trance.
Global society - This is a modern society on the globe, when instead of a multitude of isolated local civilizations, a single earth civilization arose.
Epistemology- this is a theory about the knowledge of the world by man.
Homeostasis - This is the process of maintaining balance.
State - It is a political organization that controls the activities of citizens in society.
Civil plaintiff - This is a person or organization who suffered material damage from a crime and is demanding compensation for it.
Civil defendant - This is a person or organization that, by virtue of the law, is liable for damage to a civilian.
Civil society - This is a collection of people, groups and non-governmental organizations that should be able to control the activities of the bureaucracy.
Group marriage- This is a marriage between several men and several women.
Motion- is moving in space for a certain period of time.
Social movements- these are active groups of people whose goal is to establish a new system of life.
Devaluations- This is the depreciation of the national currency.
Deviant behavior - this is abnormal behavior.
Deduction - this is condescension from the abstract to the concrete, from axioms to consequences and predictions that should be checked.
Capacity- This is the ability to enter into transactions and contracts. The current crowd is an aggressive crowd.
Demagogue - This is a person who knows how to influence the crowd in personal unseemly interests.
Demography- This is the science of population size, composition and change. Democracy is a political regime in which the ruler can control only the political sphere, but within the framework of the constitution.
Democracy extreme - it is a form of government in which power belongs to the majority of citizens and rules badly.
Democracy polisnaya or polity - is a form of government in which the power is in the hands of the majority of citizens, which rules well.
Dumping- selling goods at reduced prices in order to ruin competitors, and becoming a monopolist, the company begins to inflate prices and more than compensate for the loss of profits from dumping.
Money supply - This is the sum of all cash and non-cash money in the country.
Money-credit policy (monetary policy) - central bank activities aimed at increasing or reducing the money supply in the country in order to regulate the economic situation, curb inflation, stimulate economic growth, and the like.
Money- This is a special product that is accepted by all people in exchange for any other goods.
Deposits - These are deposits in the bank.
Deficiency - This is a situation in the market when buyers are ready to buy a larger volume of goods at the current price level than sellers are ready to offer.
Government budget deficit - This is the excess of government spending over income.
Default - This is a gross deception, the government’s refusal to pay its debts to its creditors.
Price discrimination - is the sale of the same product in the same market to different buyers at different prices.
Dialectics- this is the art of argument.
Dictatorship - This is a strong power, which often means tyranny.
Dynamics - this is a description of the sequence of stages in the development of the structure of a social organism, that is, the emergence of more and more new organizations and groups.
Asset management - this is a type of contract, under the terms of which the founder of management transfers the property to the trust manager for a certain period of time in trust management and the trust manager undertakes to exercise management in the interests of the founder.
Contract - this is an agreement of two or more persons on the establishment of civil rights.
Strike - It is a way of maintaining an administrative conflict on the part of employees, which means stopping work until the employer agrees to a salary increase.
Loan and loan - This is a type of agreement, under the terms of which the borrower takes money from the bank and undertakes to return the amount received and pay interest on it. Law is the norm and rule of behavior.
Pledge - this is the value (for example, gold and jewelry) that the lender can acquire in the property in the case when the debtor violated the terms of the contract.
Total costs - is the cost of acquiring the resources necessary for the production of a certain volume of products
Mortgage- It is a pledge of land, enterprises, buildings, structures, apartments and other real estate.
Id - it is an instinctive core of personality.
Subjective idealism - this is the theory according to which things are complexes of our sensations, not things exist, but only our consciousness.
Ideology- It is a theoretical system that justifies certain values and norms.
Excess goods (overstocking) - the situation on the market, when sellers offer the volume of goods more than buyers can buy.
Isomorphism - this is the similarity of various systems.
Social hierarchy - this is a pyramid.
Empire - This is a country built by conquest.
Impeachment (English impeachment - accusation, condemnation) - the procedure for dismissal of the president of the country by the parliament.
Import - This is the purchase of goods abroad.
Investments - This capital invested in production.
Investment - is the direction of money for the acquisition of additional capital.
Induction - this is an ascent from concrete to abstract, from experimental data to theory.
Industrialization - this is the creation of industry.
Instinctism - this is the theory that social processes are explained by people's instincts.
Symbolic interactionism - this is a theory whose representatives believe that people exchange information, conflict and control the activities of other people with the help of symbols - gestures, acting out scenes and creating an image.
Introvert - This is a person whose interest is directed to himself, he is guided in his behavior only by internal principles.
Intuition - this is the perception of the surrounding world by a person or animals with the help of the unconscious, when based on past experience and without any reflection from somewhere in the depths of the subconscious they have a ready-made recipe for solving a problem or a ready-made action plan in the form of premonition.
Inflation (from the Latin “bloat”) is a process of raising the general price level in a country, leading to a depreciation of the monetary unit.
Economic infrastructure - This is the construction of the transport network, ports, communications, gasification and electrification.
Irrationalism - it is a trend in philosophy that insists on limiting the role of reason in history and knowledge, where the main role is played not by reason, but by instincts, intuition and feelings.
Art- This is a specific form of reflection of the surrounding world with the help of artistic images.
Correctional work - it is a deduction from the earnings of the convicted person within the period determined by the court to the state in the amount established by a court sentence.
True- it is confirmability, consistency and efficiency.
Cadastre - This is a book of taxpayers.
Physical capital - this equipment, machine tools, buildings, structures, which are created by the labor of people.
Capital immaterial (invisible) means knowledge, skills, and information (patents, licenses, copyrights, people’s skills, trademarks).
Cartel- This is an agreement between the oligarchs on the division of the market, the coordination of sales volumes and the price level for each of them.
Castes - These are groups of people in the social hierarchy, where social elevators are completely turned off, so people have no opportunity to make a career.
Crime qualification - this is a match of the crime and the article of the criminal code.
Import quota - This is the maximum amount of import per year from a particular country.
Social class - This is a large group of people who occupy a certain place in the system of social control.
Clique (from the French "gang", "gang") - this is a small group of comrades who are closely knit together for the sake of achieving unseemly goals at any cost.
Clergy- This is a hierarchical pyramid of priests with severe discipline within this pyramid.
Koatservaty - these are protocells, organic structures surrounded by fatty membranes.
Code of Laws - This is a set of laws describing the norms of behavior in some area of activity - in the economy, family sphere, and the like.
Collective agreement - It is a legal act regulating the relationship between the employer and employees in the enterprise.
Command economic system - It is a way of organizing the economy, in which land and capital are in state ownership and the distribution of resources is in the hands of state central bodies in accordance with state plans.
Commission - This is a type of contract under which the commission agent undertakes, for a fee, on the instructions of the other party (committent) to make one or several transactions on its own behalf, but at the expense of the committent.
Inferiority complex - This is a deep all-pervading sense of inferiority compared to other people.
Communist movement - This is one of the directions of the socialist movement, the Communists actually follow Lenin’s example and seek to seize power without elections or cancel free elections after they come to power in elections, establish tyranny or oligarchy instead of representative democracy, cancel private property and the market.
Competitiveness increase - this is an increase in quality and lower prices for goods.
Market competition - This is an economic conflict for the right to receive economic resources.
Conservative movement - This is such a movement, whose representatives are aimed at restoring public order, sometimes even returning to the past, preserving the power of the old elite, bureaucracy or aristocracy, preserving traditional moral, family and religious values.
Contracting - This is a type of contract, under the terms of which the agricultural producer undertakes to transfer the crop to the supplier for processing or sale.
Counterculture- this is a kind of culture, the norms of which contradict the norms of the dominant culture.
Social control - is a kind of social interaction in which the controller forces the object of control to comply with the norms through the threat of positive or negative sanctions, through the introduction of stereotypes.
Confederation - This is a form of territorial structure, where almost all powers and tax revenues remain at the periphery.
Social conflict - is a kind of social interaction in which participants try to defeat their opponents with the help of various means in order to physically destroy the enemy, turn it into an object of control or conquer someone else's sphere of influence and resources.
Conflict school - it is a school in sociology, whose representatives believe that social conflicts are inevitable, but they need to be settled.
Conformism - This is a person's willingness to submit to pressure or threats.
Commercial concession - this is a type of contract according to which the right holder grants the user the right to a company name and trademark for a fee.
Market conjuncture - is the ratio of supply and demand.
Corner - This is a secret agreement between merchants or manufacturers on the temporary withdrawal of some of their goods from the market in order to artificially create a temporary shortage and price increase for this product, after that the scarce product is thrown into the market, and the participants of the agreement receive increased profits.
Indirect intent in the process of crime - This is such an intent, when the person did not want to, but allowed the dangerous consequences of their actions.
Crediting (from the Latin "creditum", that is, "loan", "debt") - is the provision of funds for the temporary use of commercial organizations for a certain price.
Creditworthiness of borrowers - this is the ability and ability to repay the debt to the bank.
Blood feud - It is the custom of members of the primitive tribe to assist each other in the process of revenge for the damage done by strangers.
Xenophobia - it is fear and hostility to other cultures and alien customs
Cult- It is a system of ceremonies, symbolic objects, musical instruments, which have the function of an impact enhancer in the hands of a priest.
Culture(from the Latin "colere" - to cultivate or cultivate the soil) - this is a system of values, ideas about the world and rules of conduct common to a certain group of people.
Material culture - These are material values created by members of society, from weapons to cars.
Culture intangible - This is a world of ideas created by members of society from altruism to Buddhism.
Purchase and sale is the exchange of goods for money.
Laconic style of speech (from the name of the area in Sparta - Laconia) is a concise and clear style in the expression of thought.
Legitimate - this is legal.
Liberal movement (from the English word liberty - freedom) - this is a movement whose representatives aim to carry out gradual peaceful reforms and the introduction of political freedoms.
Leasing (financial lease) is a type of contract under which the landlord undertakes to acquire the property specified by the tenant from a particular seller and provide the property to the tenant for temporary possession and use for business purposes.
Foreign trade license - This is a state issued permission to import or export certain types of goods from the country. Liquidity of stocks or money is the confidence of buyers that they will be able to sell them at any time.
Lobby - these are pressure groups.
Formal logic - this is the science of the laws of correct thinking.
Lying - it is unconfirmed, inconsistent and ineffective.
Lockout (from English “slam the door in front of someone”) is the closure of the enterprise for several weeks without saving wages for employees. Love is the attraction between a man and a woman.
Lumpen proletariat - This is a social group to which the lower classes of society belong - criminals, vagrants and beggars.
Majority system - this is an election system in which voters do not vote for parties, but for specific candidates
Macroeconomic policy - it is the regulation of economic activity by influencing the level of consumption and investment, as well as the money supply by means of fiscal and monetary policy.
Maximalist - This is a person who wants to get everything from life or nothing, he does not accept half measures.
Small group - This is a small number of people - from 2 to 15 people, between whom moral leadership relations are established.
Margin (from the Latin "margin", that is, "border") is the bank's income received for granting a loan to commercial organizations, which goes to the costs of a banker for doing business and the profit of a banker.
Marketing - This study of supply and demand in the market.
Weight - this is the uncreative majority of people, this is a collection of people who are concerned about the same problem, but they are not in close proximity to each other.
Matter - This is all that surrounds us, except for ideas and feelings, this matter and physical fields.
Melancholic (from the Greek "molass chole" - black bile) - this is a weak type of temperament.
Meritocracy (from English merit - "merit") - is the "power of honored people."
Mechanism in Sociology - this is a theory whose representatives believed that society is similar to an aggregate of elements, each of which can be studied independently of each other.
Mystic (from Greek - "secret") - this is supernatural phenomena and spiritual practice, aimed at communicating with the other world and supernatural forces.
Social mobility - this is the movement of people along the social “ladder”.
Vertical mobility - this is the movement of people up or down the social “ladder” during life, with an increase or decrease in social status.
Horizontal mobility - it is moving along one step of the social ladder without changing the social status.
Fashion - this is the desire of the lower classes to imitate the elite.
trendy things - These are identification marks indicating elitism.
Monetarism - This is a direction of economic thought that denies - in contrast to Keynesianism - the need for state regulation of economic activity. Prefers anti-inflationary policies aimed at maintaining the stability of the monetary system.
Monogamy- This is a marriage of one man and one woman.
Foreign trade monopoly - this is a situation where only the state, and not private firms, has the right to enter into foreign trade transactions on the export and import of goods.
Monotheism- this is monotheism.
Multiplier (in Keynesian theory) is a coefficient characterizing the increase in national income as a result of the amount of money originally spent - government spending or investment.
Cash - This is paper money and loose change.
Taxes- These are mandatory payments levied by the tax authorities on organizations and individuals for the purpose of financing the state and municipalities.
Nationality - This is an ethnos that managed to create its own state.
Naturalism in sociology - This is the point of view that social phenomena are subject to the laws inherent in nature - the laws of physics, mechanics, biology, and geography. Nationalization of enterprises - this is a buyout or weaning of enterprises from private owners.
The science - it is a human activity to obtain, systematize and test knowledge
Nation- This is an ethnos that managed to build a capitalist society - a common national market, democracy, private property, the rule of law, and national culture.
Incompetent - this is a citizen who, as a result of a mental disorder, cannot understand the meaning of his actions, only a court can recognize a citizen as incapable.
Basic social science terms. Completed: Sultanova V.N.
A society is a part of the material world that is isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which consists of individuals with the will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction between people and the form of their association. Society is a historically developing set of relations between people, developing in the course of their life activity.
Civil society is a combination of non-political relations, organizations, movements, it is a certain stage of maturity of the political and social spheres of society.
The state is a special organization of the political power of society, occupying a certain territory, having its own system of governance, and possessing internal and external sovereignty. The state is a “special organization of the political power of society, having a special apparatus of coercion, expressing the will and interests of the ruling class or the whole people.”
Power refers to the ability and ability to exercise one’s will, to exert a decisive influence on the activities of people through any means.
In modern political science, democracy is understood as a political regime (sometimes they talk about a political system, a form of state-political structure), based on the recognition of the people of the source and the subject of power. Democracy is a political regime in which the people are the only legitimate source of power.
Civilization is: a historical epoch that has replaced the "barbarism"; the highest stage of human development; cultural - geographical formation, for example, Eastern, Western, Chinese civilizations; global civilization spanning the planet.
Reform is a transformation, reorganization, change of any side of the society of life that does not destroy the foundations of the existing social structure, leaving power in the hands of the former ruling class.
Social - social, generated by the interaction of large masses of people. Socialization is a lifelong process of assimilating cultural norms and mastering social roles.
Stratification (from lat.stratum - layer and ... fikatsiya, ie, device) - the location of social layers (groups) from top to bottom on the basis of inequality in income, level of education, amount of power, professional prestige. Social status - a person's position in society, occupied by him in accordance with age, gender, social origin, profession, and other indicators and implying certain rights and obligations.
Politics (from the Greek. Politike - the art of government) - conscious activity in the political sphere of society, aimed at achieving, retaining, strengthening and implementing power, activities related to determining the content of the tasks and functions of the state. Law - a set of generally binding rules of conduct (norms), established or sanctioned by the state.
Market (eng. Market) - economic relations associated with the purchase and sale of goods and services, as a result of which demand, supply and price are formed. Market economy is a way of organizing economic life, based on a variety of forms of ownership, entrepreneurship and competition, free pricing.
Globalization is a historical process of bringing nations and peoples closer together, gradually erasing traditional boundaries and transforming humanity into a single political system.
CUSTOMS, TRADITIONS, STEPS.
Custom is an ancestral inherited mode of behavior that is reproduced in society or social group and is habitual and logical for their members. The term “custom” is often identified with the terms “tradition.
Tradition (from the Latin. "Tradition", custom) - a variety of ideas, rites, habits and skills of practical and social activities, handed down from generation to generation, acting as one of the regulators of social relations.
Some people such concepts as customs and traditions unite into one. However, this is not entirely true. Most often, when it comes to the transfer of the foundations of social order to its descendants, it is about the transfer of traditions. If we are talking about the transfer of ceremonies of weddings, funerals, holidays, then they talk about customs.
If we are talking about the generally accepted national dress of the people, this is a tradition, as it concerns the people as a whole. If some part of the people adds their own decoration to the national dress, then this is already a custom concerning this part of the people. Such a custom can become a tradition if it is accepted by the whole nation. Most likely, this is how different customs became a common tradition.
That is, different customs in the complex and create generally accepted traditions. Therefore, people identify traditions, customs and rituals in one concept, although this is not so. Tradition is not born immediately. She emerges from established customs. And customs are born from the life and behavior of people themselves.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russian photographer inventor S.M. Prokudin-Gorsky invented the technique of color photography. He did it autonomously at the same time as the French, brothers Auguste and Louis Lumiere, who are considered the official inventors of the color photo. Prokudin-Gorsky imprinted on his photos people in national clothes, believing that this tradition must be memorized by documents. Thanks to him, we have an idea of the national clothes of the peoples of Russia.
All peoples have traditionally had a high value of the word man. There were times when even the writing was not. Therefore, the word spoken by man is not just appreciated. The word was given a mystical meaning. It was believed, as indeed now, that what was said out loud, a wish, a statement, an obligation, or even a curse, always have their effect and are surely carried out. And this happens regardless of whether the person who has spoken or not wants this. The wish of health and happiness in ancient people was always perceived as something real. It happened that people asked to return their words and wishes to them if it turned out that these wishes were expressed not to the one who deserved it. There were cases when people who spoke untruth were demanded to take back their words.
From there, the expression "take back your words" originates. Some people today believe that words are material and try not to scatter them. Others do not attach importance to this, and their words in the eyes of other people are worth nothing. And today, no one seriously takes the words of talkers and boasters, but the words of decent people are highly valued. They listen to them. They are referenced.
If a person claims something, he must prove it to those who listen to him. After all, he is interested in listening to him to believe him. Then, as proof of the truthfulness of his words, he begins to cite as an example the words of authoritative, worthy people. Those words and statements that have been tested by time and no longer need proof of honesty. If these arguments correspond to the speaker’s words, then people begin to believe him. They make sure that the person is not hypocritical and does not lie.
However, there is another tradition that appeared relatively recently and also relates to the value of the spoken word. This tradition was invented by Hitler. He argued that if you want to believe your lie, you do not need to tell a single lie. It is necessary to mix lies with the truth and then you will believe everything.
This is a false tradition, but there is a certain value in it. The desire to deceive the listening people once again underlines how important the value of the human word is for everyone without exception. And for honest people, and for liars. So, whether we like it or not, but our tradition to appreciate the word lives with us to this day. Even scammers try to use this tradition.
In addition to the value of the word, there is also the value of the human act. Actions are different. Significant and not very. But they are all positive, or negative. All of humanity is working to meet the needs of people. Every day many people work in their positions and commit the actions that they must perform. These actions are not considered unusual, but they allow us to provide society with all necessary. These are positive deeds. However, some people commit negative actions. This is a crime. In order to protect themselves from crime, the society comes up with laws protecting honest and decent people. But in the history of mankind there were times when laws did not protect people. Then people defended themselves. They responded with revenge to any crime against friends or relatives. Revenge is a single act, or a series of actions logically related to each other. Revenge of the enemy was considered a must. Refusal of revenge had to have a strong justification, otherwise it became a shame.
In one of his stories, the writer Kont, a former Afghan warrior, describes a case that occurred in one of the Afghan villages. Next to it was the post of the Soviet army. It was a small fortress, bristling with machine guns and machine guns. The fighters were constantly waiting for the Mujahideen attacks from anywhere, just not from the side of the village. In order not to bring troubles to the residents, the Mujahideen did not enter the village. One night the incredible happened. Block post was attacked from where it was not expected. The attack was met with dagger fire from a roadblock. When it bloomed, the fighters saw that on the ground lay the dead old men, the inhabitants of the village armed with what. Only a few of them had old, useless in battle, hunting rifles. Next to the others were sabers, daggers, axes. An investigation revealed that one of the fighters of the roadblock penetrated into one of the houses at night and first raped and then killed a 13-year-old girl. He managed to escape when residents of the village learned about this crime. No one doubted that there were too few of them and they were all old men. They did not see for themselves any other development of events, except revenge. Without waiting for the morning, they rushed into their last attack. They would not have been able to take revenge, but at least no one could blame them for not trying to do it. As the Russian prince Svyatoslav used to say: "The dead are not shameless."
Revenge feared no less than the law. This is a very ancient custom. Each nation had its own particular manifestations of revenge, but they were all distinguished by cruelty. Cruelty does no one better. Cruelty begets another cruelty, and then evil has no end in sight.
When Jesus Christ came to teach people, he called everyone to forgive each other. It was he who said that if they hit you on the right cheek, turn the left one. So the Savior marked the beginning of the custom of forgiveness. For many, this custom is incomprehensible, because it contradicts revenge. But we are not talking about the forgiveness of murder. But revenge for any petty offense can lead to the death of a person.
1. Annual customs.
Practically all nations had a HARVEST HOLIDAY. The exception was the peoples who could get 2-3 harvests a year. For them, it was not such a significant event. The bulk of the population received a harvest once a year and tried to celebrate this event magnificently. This holiday was a symbol of abundance. After this holiday, it was customary to play weddings, and not only among Christians, Muslims, or representatives of other religions. In the spring of products is not enough. This custom came to us from pagan times. The weddings were celebrated by everyone, because immediately after the harvest, there was plenty of food, and the work was stopped due to the end of harvesting. Harvest festival, a natural and logical celebration.
Today, the harvest festival is celebrated not so magnificently as before. Only peasants celebrate it. This happens for several reasons.
- Harvesting is not engaged in the entire population, but only a small part of it. For example, in the USA only 3% of the population works in agriculture. For other people, this does not mean anything. In the Middle Ages, about 90% of the population worked in agriculture.
- Now with the end of the harvest, the work on the land does not end there and practically continues throughout the year. The new agrotechnical system is intensively exploiting the soil. Previously, people used one field once every two, or three years. That is, the field worked for one year, and rested for two years. Today the fields do not rest. They are actively fertilized with mineral fertilizers. Part of the fields is planted for the winter, but before they did this quite rarely. In other words, there is no winter downtime in agriculture.
- There are many other lush holidays, which were not there before, including those that are celebrated at the same time as the harvest festival.
The farewell to the winter was very magnificently celebrated among the people. In Russia, this holiday is known as MASLENITSA. Surviving the winter was not easy. The peasants did not have central heating. It was necessary to prepare firewood. Huts were small, so that it was easier to warm them with one stove. In the same oven and cooked food. In winter, the entire population was tied to their homes as sources of heat. Therefore, seeing the winter people celebrated with great joy. This holiday fell on the period of the vernal equinox. During the celebration of Maslenitsa in Russia, it was decided to burn the effigy of winter. In different places of Russia this custom was celebrated with its details. Somewhere they burned an effigy wrapped in pea straw. It burns well. Such a scarecrow was called a jester pea. In Kostroma, a scarecrow was called "Kostroma".
In different places, various chants were devoted to this holiday, but the meaning and time of the holiday always remains the same. This custom also came in our time from pagan times. The Orthodox Church celebrates Shrovetide on the eve of the beginning of the strict Easter fast. Throughout the oil week, people baked pancakes, pies and folk festivities. On Thursday, it was considered a tradition for mother-in-law to make pancakes for his sons-in-law and to treat them. Oil Sunday is forgiven. On this day, all people ask for forgiveness of each other. Before the revolution on the forgiveness of Sunday, there were fist fights wall to wall. This is a special custom. That is, adult guys and men lined up opposite each other in the amount of up to several dozen people. The team came together and began to fight. The rules were strict. If a fighter fell, then dropped out of battle. It was impossible to beat the recumbent fighter. The fight was not supposed to be traumatic and unjustifiably cruel, but the blood from injuries was considered common. The battle continued until complete victory. After the battle, the opponents embraced and asked forgiveness of each other.
Weddings are considered to be the most vivid customs. Nowadays, this ceremony is preserved and people arrange a magnificent wedding to leave the memory of this event. But not only. Wedding is not just a joyful holiday. This event, which not only makes many people responsible for the lives and happiness of a young family, but also makes a young family responsible to all those present for their joint life, which they promise to create at a wedding. That is, a wedding is not only a holiday, but also a mutual commitment. How else? The bride and groom and their parents invite all those whom they respect to the wedding. This invitation can be regarded as a statement that they do not just invite guests, but promise to honestly and with dignity to start a family. In turn, everyone who is invited to the wedding should continue to provide all possible assistance to a young family should they turn to him for help. So the wedding is not just a feast. This is not just a collection of gifts. This is an important life event.
Muslims still, but not everywhere, it is customary to pay the ransom — kalym. It is believed that the man who paid the feast is sufficiently wealthy to maintain his own family. The size of kalym is discussed individually, but this custom is not practiced in all Islamic countries. At weddings, it is customary to give only money. This money is given to parents of young. But parents must provide children, and housing, and furniture, and everything necessary for life, including clothes and dishes. Accordingly, they bear all the costs of organizing a wedding. The money received at the wedding from the guests, as a rule, cannot reimburse the parental expenses.
Christians can give everything. And money, and gifts. Everything is given to the young. The bride price is not paid, but the bride must bring a dowry with her. The size of the dowry depends on the wealth of the bride's family. Parents pay for the wedding. But in this sense, the differences between Muslims and Christians are not significant.
Before the wedding, Christians decided to negotiate a wedding. This is called collusion and ends with an engagement, or betrothal. Senior representatives of the groom come to negotiate with the bride's parents. Representatives may not be relatives. Usually they are matchmakers, but the presence of the groom's parents is mandatory.
Matchmakers observe the rites of the event. Parents of the bride and groom will learn about the intentions of the young and if they are positive, then an agreement on the timing of the wedding occurs. Bride and groom are engaged to wedding rings. From now on, they can communicate in public, but they cannot live together before the wedding. What is it done for?
In case someone from the young decides to marry, then all preparations will be stopped and the wedding will not take place. In this case, the young are not bound by any circumstances and may find other elects for themselves. That is, young people are given time to look at each other better. The rings are returned to the groom as they are bought by the groom's parents for betrothal.
The contract may not take place. If the groom does not like the bride, she can immediately abandon him. This event becomes shameful for the groom, so he must be sure that the girl will give consent to the marriage.
In Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Russia and many other nations, it was customary for the hapless bridegroom to endure a pumpkin (garbus). It was a shameful sign of failure. Why shameful? Because if the groom sees that he does not like the girl, but continues to show perseverance, then having received a pumpkin, he no longer has the right to send matchmakers to this girl a second time. That is, the girl has the opportunity to get rid of the annoying groom once and for all.
Muslims also have a similar custom. If the bride at the wedding strikes with all the groom with a whip, the wedding will not take place. However, both the groom and the bride herself are considered disgraced in the eyes of guests and the whole society.
Today, many young people tend to earn big money and only then get married to pay for their own expenses. Do not want to depend on the parents. In this case, there are two problems from which it is difficult to choose the worst. First of all; this may be offensive to parents. Parents are usually willing to incur any debts in order to fulfill their duty to their children. Secondly; The process of making money can last an unknown number of years. This may deprive a person of the opportunity to create his own family.
It was always considered a disgrace to give a girl to marry without matchmaking. According to the logic of weddings, it turned out that no one is interested in protecting the interests of young people. No one even knows that a new family has appeared. There are no witnesses of the obligations assumed by the groom and his parents. Therefore, it is not customary to give the girl for her husband in secret. And it doesn’t matter if the dowry is paid for it, or whether it is crowned in an Orthodox church, the meaning is always the same. Family commitments should be public and frank.
In difficult times, when the guests were not able to make gifts, and parents to gather a rich feast, the wedding was still trying to play. Often this was done by joint efforts, but the wedding still became a memorable, joyful event. Even the gifts were made the most modest, but the wedding was done.
Any speculation in this regard does not promise anything good. Previously, often, parents themselves decided for whom to give their daughters and whom to marry their sons. Many acted on the principle of material interest. That is, they tried to intermarry with a rich bridegroom, or a rich bride. Often, young brides would marry elderly grooms and vice versa.
This situation gave rise to another custom. This is a bride kidnapping. The act is radical, but immediately solves all problems, including the cost of the wedding. The logic of abduction is simple. The abduction of an unmarried girlfriend by the groom puts her in the category of either disgraced, or married women. But the kidnapper can immediately abandon her and leave disgraced. Parents of the bride, who could not prevent the abduction, look impartial among people and are ready to give their daughter for the kidnapper, just to observe all the necessary rites and enlist the support of relatives and witnesses. Even if before that they publicly refused to this fiancé. At the same time, they are trying to do everything so that the abduction remains secret. If the parents basically do not recognize the kidnapper's groom, the bride becomes his wife without a wedding. This is understandable. Not a single groom, after the abduction, is no longer her.
However, there were also frequent cases of prior agreement about the abduction, the groom with the bride, the groom with the parents, the groom with the parents and the bride in order to avoid the costs associated with holding a big wedding. Here the logic is very simple. If the girl was kidnapped, but not married, it is considered a disgrace. If she was kidnapped, but after numerous trials and clarifications of relations (sometimes turning into fights), the family is still created, then the bride’s image even acquires a certain romantic connotation. Therefore, abductions are sometimes even staged at rich weddings.
BURIAL
What could be no less significant than the wedding? Of course the funeral of the deceased person. The Bible mentions that a person who has betrayed the dead person looks worthy before God, but after the funeral he must be cleansed. And today there is a custom to wash hands after attending a funeral.
As life shows, not all people get married, but everybody dies. Death makes the burial rite obligatory. Our ancestors buried the dead in the ground so that they would not be defiled by animals and birds. After all, it is about the dead relatives. But the attitude towards strangers who died was the same. Subsequently, rituals of burial in coffins were invented. The coffin symbolizes the boat in which the deceased goes to another world. Among believers, it is customary to give a special funeral. After all, this is the last path of a person to another world. Orthodox Christians take to bury people in the land. In India, Japan and other countries, dead people are cremated. Burned. The materialists follow the common religious traditions and cremate the dead.
Christians take dead people at home for one to two days. This is done so that those who are far away and cannot quickly come to the funeral can say goodbye to the deceased. On the day of the funeral of the deceased it is customary to read in the church or at home. It is customary to carry the coffin from the house on the hands along the street where the dead man lived. A farewell ceremony takes place at the cemetery when relatives kiss the deceased on the forehead. Those who wish may speak out loud about the deceased, but it is customary to speak of the dead either well or nothing. After the coffin was lowered into the grave, everyone present throws three pinches of earth into the grave as a sign of farewell. After the funeral, people go to wake. At the memorial table is not taken to knock glasses. Feast is short. The buried person is remembered, and the dead relatives are also remembered. At the funeral of dead children alcohol is not consumed.
Then relatives gather to commemorate the deceased after 7 days. The deceased is comfortably commemorated on the fortieth day. It is believed that for 40 days the soul of a deceased person still wanders, and on day 40 it turns out to be where it should be. On the day of the funeral, a cross is installed on the grave, and a year later, on the anniversary of death, it is customary to erect a monument. But all this for wealth.
Muslims have taken the funeral to complete before sunset on the day of death of a person. No one is waiting. Mullah performs her prayers and ceremonies. The dead are carried to the cemetery only by men. Women do not go to the cemetery. Commemorate the deceased seven days in a row. These funerals are not so much a table as much as reasonable ones. Every day people talk about life, death, God, faith, and so on. The family of the deceased try not to leave unattended, so that it was easier to get used to the loss. The 40th day of the Muslims is also celebrated as the anniversary.
Funeral customs and rituals are quite diverse and can only be described in specialized work in a very large volume. All of them are logically determined. Only the most general rules are described here. People learn to them by participating in the funeral of the dead. At the funeral of the most famous and respected people comes a large number of people. But the number of people at the funeral does not indicate how a person was in life. It is important with what thoughts people come to the funeral and how then they remember the deceased. Good or bad.
COMMONLY ACCEPTED CUSTOMS.
There are many such customs. They are inherent in every nation because they are logically conditioned by the same circumstances. Take a simple case related to the fact that the young man gives way to transport. This is not just an element of education. This is a generally accepted custom that has been modified, but its essence remains the same. There was no public transport yet, but it was accepted by every nation that the younger ones not only give up their place, but rise at a time when the oldest one approached them. And the age difference did not matter. And today it is customary to get up if a person approached you and started a conversation with you. And even if he is the same age as you. It is just considered impolite if you will talk while sitting with a person who is standing in front of you.
In ancient Sparta, it was allowed not to stand up in front of an older person, if he had no children. It was explained simply. His children will not stand before anyone.
It was not customary to sit talking to women. This was considered a bad taste rule and a well-bred woman would not continue to talk with her interlocutor sitting in front of her, if he was certainly not disabled. Today, many nations have decided to give way to those who stand in the transport not only to older people or pregnant women, but simply to older people. This is not perceived as an aid in a difficult situation, but as a tribute.
Before the revolution, all men showed such respect for women, but with the development of feminism, people began to perceive the politeness of men to women in transport as harassment.
Interestingly, before the revolution, it was customary for aristocrats and townspeople to take off their hat when meeting a pregnant woman. Tribute to motherhood.
INTERESTING TRADITIONS OF SOME PEOPLE.
Some customs of the Japanese seem interesting to me. In the year they celebrate the day of the boys, and separately the day of the girls. These days are dedicated to children up to 6-7 years. These days they are sure to dress up in the most beautiful clothes and everything is possible for them.
Japanese schools traditionally have a food lesson. Every day, two students are engaged in serving a school lunch for their class. Thus, students learn the Japanese table traditions of serving, eating, and eating at the table.
In Italy, on the eve of the new year, it is customary to throw old things out of the windows onto the street. It is believed that they will remain in the old year, and the family will acquire new ones in the new year.
In Finland and Norway it is not customary to praise a person in public. This is considered a gross flattery and can even harm someone you praise.
In China, it is not accepted to give anything related to the number 4. This number symbolizes death. In the same place, it’s not even customary to designate floors by the number 4. They go 1,2,3,5,6,
In India, it is not customary to thank for the gift. This is considered a bad tone rule. You can praise the gift.
In the US, it is not customary to pay for a woman in a taxi, open the door for her, report things for her ... because she can take it for sexual harassment and go to the authorities with a complaint.
In Greece, it is not customary to praise utensils or pictures of the hosts on a visit. According to custom, the owner will have to give it to you.
In Georgia, it is not accepted to leave the glasses of guests empty. A guest may or may not drink, but his glass will always be full.
Words of greeting from different nations are different. The Chinese asks at the meeting: "did you eat?", The Iranian will say: "be cheerful", the Zulus will warn you: "I can see you."
